Hyperbaric Oxygen Therapy for Cerebral Palsy:
Two Complications of Treatment
Gabrielle Nuthall, MBChB, FRACP*; Michael Seear, MD, FRCPC*; Michael Lepawsky, MD, FCFP‡;
David Wensley, MBBS, FRCPC*; Peter Skippen, MBBS, FRCPC*; and Juliette Hukin, MBBS, FRCPC§
ABSTRACT. There is growing interest in the use of
hyperbaric oxygen therapy (HBO2) for children with cerebral palsy. Although there is no rigorous evidence to
support this management, private hyperbaric centers
have been established throughout the United States and
Canada. There is likely to be increasing pressure on
pediatricians and other health professionals to prescribe
HBO2. We describe 2 children with cerebral palsy who
suffered significant morbidity immediately after treatment with hyperbaric oxygen. Both the temporal association and pathologic findings suggest that the hyperbaric
treatment is likely to have been responsible for the resulting complications. As with any new therapy, we suggest waiting for the results of a randomized, controlled
trial before recommending this treatment. Pediatrics
2000;106(6). URL: http://www.pediatrics.org/cgi/content/
full/106/6/e80; hyperbaric oxygen, cerebral palsy.
ABBREVIATIONS. CP, cerebral palsy; HBO2, hyperbaric oxygen
therapy; Po2, pressure of oxygen; ICU, intensive care unit; ITP,
idiopathic thrombocytopenia purpura; CT, computed tomography.

C

erebral palsy (CP) is a nonprogressive disorder of the developing brain affecting the motor system, with a broad clinical spectrum. It
can be associated with epilepsy and abnormalities of
speech, vision, and intellect. It affects ⬃2 to 3 per
1000 school-aged children.1 It was previously believed that CP was the result of medical complications occurring around the time of delivery. However, there is growing evidence that the majority of
cases are caused by intrauterine insults or structural
abnormalities of the central nervous system.1,2
There is currently no known medical treatment for
CP other than supportive care, usually provided by a
multidisciplinary team in most pediatric centers. Understandably, some parents look for treatments outside conventional mainstream medicine. There is
growing interest in the use of hyperbaric oxygen
therapy (HBO2) for children with CP.3–7 Although
there is no scientific data to support the use of this
therapy, private hyperbaric centers have been estab-

From the *Intensive Care Unit, Children’s and Women’s Hospital; ‡Hyperbaric Unit, Vancouver General Hospital; and the §Division of Neurology,
Children’s and Woman’s Hospital, Vancouver, Canada.
Received for publication Apr 28, 2000; accepted Jul 14, 2000.
Reprint requests to (M.S.) Children’s and Women’s Hospital, Room 1C42,
4480 Oak St, Vancouver, BC V6H 3V4, Canada. E-mail: mseear@cw.bc.ca
PEDIATRICS (ISSN 0031 4005). Copyright © 2000 by the American Academy of Pediatrics.

lished in Europe and North America principally for
the treatment of CP.
Montgomery et al7 recently published the results
of a pilot study on the treatment of 25 children with
spastic diplegic CP with HBO2. Results showed improved gross motor function and fine motor control,
reduced spasticity, and improvements noted by the
parents. However, this study has a number of limitations, many of which are acknowledged by the
authors. It involved a small number of children,
there was no control group, and there was no blinding of the therapists performing the assessments. The
treatments were conducted at 2 different hyperbaric
centers with different treatment protocols and some
of the assessments were of a subjective nature.
During HBO2, the partial pressure of oxygen (Po2)
in the blood is greatly increased by exposing the
child to elevated ambient pressures while breathing
100% oxygen. Treatment regimens differ but generally treatments involve pressurization to 1.5 to 2
atmospheres for 60 to 90 minutes. Clients must
breath 100% oxygen. In a multiplace chamber (hyperbaric chamber in which several patients can be
treated simultaneously), this is administered through
an enclosed vinyl diving hood with neck seals. Justifications for HBO2 in CP vary but generally rely on
a claim that high tissue oxygen levels can improve
the function of damaged cells within the central nervous system.4,8,9 There are no controlled trials to
support these claims. At least 2 private centers have
informative web sites explaining their rationale for
treatment.8,9
When used for conventional indications, HBO2 is
generally safe. For treatments ⬍120 minutes and
pressures below 3 atmospheres, central nervous system complications occur in 1% to 2% of patients and
reversible barotrauma in 15% to 20%.3 We report 2
children with CP who required admission to our
pediatric intensive care unit (ICU), each within a few
hours of a hyperbaric oxygen treatment. The clinical
presentation and close temporal association with
HBO2 suggest that this therapy is likely to have
contributed to the complications.
CASE REPORTS
Case 1
A 4-year-old boy with CP was admitted to our pediatric ICU
with severe respiratory distress, 2 hours after completing a hyperbaric oxygen treatment. He was the product of a breech presentation and required extensive resuscitation at birth. By 4 years of
age, he could stand with support but had no speech and poor

http://www.pediatrics.org/cgi/content/full/106/6/e80
PEDIATRICS Vol. 106 No. 6 December 2000
Downloaded from pediatrics.aappublications.org by guest on May 14, 2015

1 of 3

comprehension. He required anticonvulsant therapy for a symptomatic seizure disorder. During the day of admission, he received
2 courses of HBO2; each treatment lasted 90 minutes with 15
minutes for descent and 15 minutes for ascent. The child was
dived to 1.75 atmospheres on each occasion. During treatment his
head was completely enclosed by a vinyl hood with latex seals
around his neck for delivery of oxygen. Between the 2 treatments
he was fed orally. He regurgitated his feed during the second
treatment. He subsequently developed increasing respiratory distress that prompted his intensive care admission. He had been
well on the morning of the treatments and had no past history of
aspiration or choking episodes. His chest radiograph revealed
dense opacification of the left lung field compatible with an acute
aspiration. He was treated with intravenous antibiotics, intensive
chest physiotherapy, and bi-level positive pressure mask ventilation. He was discharged to the ward after 3 days in the ICU. A
feeding study subsequently revealed free reflux and tracheal aspiration of feeds.

Case 2
A 10-month-old boy with CP was admitted to our ICU with
acute respiratory failure that required immediate intubation and
ventilatory support. He also required intravenous anticonvulsants
for control of what was observed to be a brief generalized tonic
clonic seizure that occurred after positive pressure ventilation was
instituted. His medical history was significant for severe perinatal
asphyxia after uterine rupture during delivery. This resulted in
spastic CP with microcephaly and developmental delay, cortical
visual impairment, bulbar dysfunction, and recurrent pneumonia.
The child had been receiving twice-daily hyperbaric oxygen treatments for the 2 days before admission. Each treatment involved
pressurization to 1.5 atmospheres for 1 hour with 15 minutes to
dive and 15 minutes to ascend. HBO2 treatment was administered
in a monoplace chamber, with a parent present, and with ambient
oxygen of 100%. There were no obvious complications during
treatment. Routine hematology on admission to the ICU revealed
a platelet count of 16 ⫻ 109/L (normal range: 180 –140 ⫻ 109/L). A
diagnosis of idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura (ITP) was
made, which was believed to be related to the parainfluenza type
3 found on tracheal aspirate. He subsequently had 2 further generalized tonic clonic seizures during the first day of admission. In
view of the low platelet count and the ongoing seizure activity, a
computed tomography (CT) scan of his head was organized to
exclude an acute intracerebral hemorrhage. A CT scan of his head
showed an acute nonhemorrhagic infarction of the left hemisphere
thought to be attributable to a thrombus or embolus to the middle
cerebral artery. An echocardiogram demonstrated a patent foramen ovale with bidirectional flow. No other embolic events were
identified and coagulation studies were normal, no other investigations for a hypercoagulable state were performed. His thrombocytopenia responded rapidly to treatment with intravenous
␥-globulin. In view of this rapid response and the recent association of a number of other children developing ITP in association
with parainfluenza type 3, it was believed that a bone marrow
aspirate to confirm the diagnosis of ITP was not necessary. He was
extubated successfully soon after transfer back to his home state.
The only clinical manifestation of the left hemispheric infarction
was the onset of seizure activity. There was otherwise no change
in his neurological examination.

DISCUSSION

These 2 children with CP suffered significant medical problems shortly after hyperbaric oxygen therapy. We believe that the close temporal relationship
between these 2 events, combined with the clinical
features of the cases, support the suggestion that
HBO2 is likely to have been responsible for these
complications.
In the first case, the child was well on the morning
of his admission, did not have a fever, and was
subsequently shown to have free gastroesophageal
reflux with aspiration. It is likely that he suffered a
serious aspiration event during the 90 minutes that
his head was completely enclosed within a tight2 of 3

fitting vinyl hood. Gas buildup in the stomach during pressurization, either from a recent feed or from
air swallowing, will conform to Boyle’s law. During
ascent from the treatment depth, there will be gas
expansion with potential for reflux, aspiration, and
vomiting.10 This may have contributed to this child’s
aspiration event. Swallowing disorders and reflux
are common among children with CP.11 When planning a treatment regimen for this group of children,
consideration of oral feeding, access to the airway,
provision of trained personnel, and suction equipment would be a sensible minimum requirement.
Although the second case had a very low platelet
count, the CT scan revealed an embolic or thrombotic, rather than a hemorrhagic, stroke. We propose that the most likely mechanism for the middle
cerebral artery occlusion was a gas embolism. It
was unlikely to have been an air embolism, but
theoretically possible to have been an oxygen embolism. When breathing 100% oxygen at 2 atmospheres, the Po2 in the arterial blood is ⬎1000 mm
Hg. During the 15-minute ascent, this begins to
fall, dropping to 100 mm Hg when breathing atmospheric pressure air. Oxygen is not highly soluble in plasma, so it is theoretically possible for
bubbles of oxygen to form in the arterial blood
during this equilibration period leading to occlusion of the middle cerebral artery.
Two other pathophysiological factors may be considered in accounting for the proposed clinical presentation of a cerebral oxygen embolism. During the
decompression phase of treatment, oxygen bubbles
might form in the lower pressure venous system and
be ejected into the left atrium through the patent
foramen ovale. They would then travel through the
left atrium into the systemic circulation and might
lodge in the left middle cerebral artery. Alternatively
bubbles might sequester in the pulmonary arterial
bed, ultimately pass through to the pulmonary venous bed, travel to the left atrium and left ventricle,
and be ejected to lodge in the left middle cerebral
artery. Both these mechanisms have been described
in the literature.12,13
The Undersea and Hyperbaric Medical Society
provides a list of conditions for which HBO2 is an
acceptable treatment. CP is not one of these indications. Their recommendation is that HBO2 should
not be used for any other indication except in the
context of controlled clinical trials. Although HBO2 is
a relatively safe treatment, it does have documented
risks.3 Until the results of a randomized, controlled
trial are available, we would suggest that HBO2 not
be recommended as a treatment for CP in children.
REFERENCES
1. Perlman JM. Intrapartum hypoxic-ischemic cerebral injury and subsequent cerebral palsy: medicolegal issues. Pediatrics. 1997;99:851– 859.
Review article
2. Maclennan A. For the International Cerebral Palsy Task Force. A template for defining a causal relation between acute intrapartum events
and cerebral palsy: International Consensus Statement. Br Med J. 1999;
319:1054 –1059
3. Leach P, Rees P, Wilmhurst P. Hyperbaric oxygen therapy. Br Med J.
1998;317:1140 –1143
4. Venter A, Leary M, Schoeman J, et al. Hyperbaric oxygen treatment for

HYPERBARIC OXYGEN THERAPY FOR CEREBRAL PALSY
Downloaded from pediatrics.aappublications.org by guest on May 14, 2015

children with cerebral palsy. S Afr Med J. 1998;88:1362–1363
5. Cronje F. Hyperbaric oxygen therapy for children with cerebral palsy. S
Afr Med J. 1999;89:359 –361
6. Kent H. Customers lining up for high-cost hyperbaric therapy. Can Med
Assoc J. 1999;160:1043
7. Montgomery D, Goldberg J, Amar M, et al. Effects of hyperbaric oxygen
therapy on children with spastic diplegic cerebral palsy: a pilot project.
Undersea Hyperb Med. 1999;26:235–242
8. Available at: http://www.hbotoday.com

9. Available at: http://www.richmond-hyperbaric.com
10. Guyton A, Hall J. Textbook of Medical Physiology. 9th ed. Philadelphia,
PA: WB Saunders Co; 1996:557
11. Del Giudice E, Staino A, Capano G, et al. Gastrointestinal manifestations in children with cerebral palsy. Brain Dev. 1999;21:307–311
12. Murphy B, Hartford F, Cramer F. Cerebral air embolism resulting from
invasive medical procedures: treatment with hyperbaric oxygen. Ann
Surg. 1985;201:242–245
13. Muth C, Shank E. Gas embolism. N Engl J Med. 2000;342:476 – 482

http://www.pediatrics.org/cgi/content/full/106/6/e80
Downloaded from pediatrics.aappublications.org by guest on May 14, 2015

3 of 3

Hyperbaric Oxygen Therapy for Cerebral Palsy: Two Complications of
Treatment
Gabrielle Nuthall, Michael Seear, Michael Lepawsky, David Wensley, Peter Skippen
and Juliette Hukin
Pediatrics 2000;106;e80
DOI: 10.1542/peds.106.6.e80
Updated Information &
Services

including high resolution figures, can be found at:
http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/106/6/e80.full.ht
ml

References

This article cites 9 articles, 3 of which can be accessed free at:
http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/106/6/e80.full.ht
ml#ref-list-1

Subspecialty Collections

This article, along with others on similar topics, appears in the
following collection(s):
Neurology
http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/collection/neurology_
sub

Permissions & Licensing

Information about reproducing this article in parts (figures,
tables) or in its entirety can be found online at:
http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/site/misc/Permissions.xht
ml

Reprints

Information about ordering reprints can be found online:
http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/site/misc/reprints.xhtml

PEDIATRICS is the official journal of the American Academy of Pediatrics. A monthly
publication, it has been published continuously since 1948. PEDIATRICS is owned, published,
and trademarked by the American Academy of Pediatrics, 141 Northwest Point Boulevard, Elk
Grove Village, Illinois, 60007. Copyright © 2000 by the American Academy of Pediatrics. All
rights reserved. Print ISSN: 0031-4005. Online ISSN: 1098-4275.

Downloaded from pediatrics.aappublications.org by guest on May 14, 2015

Hyperbaric Oxygen Therapy for Cerebral Palsy: Two Complications of
Treatment
Gabrielle Nuthall, Michael Seear, Michael Lepawsky, David Wensley, Peter Skippen
and Juliette Hukin
Pediatrics 2000;106;e80
DOI: 10.1542/peds.106.6.e80

The online version of this article, along with updated information and services, is
located on the World Wide Web at:
http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/106/6/e80.full.html

PEDIATRICS is the official journal of the American Academy of Pediatrics. A monthly
publication, it has been published continuously since 1948. PEDIATRICS is owned,
published, and trademarked by the American Academy of Pediatrics, 141 Northwest Point
Boulevard, Elk Grove Village, Illinois, 60007. Copyright © 2000 by the American Academy
of Pediatrics. All rights reserved. Print ISSN: 0031-4005. Online ISSN: 1098-4275.

Downloaded from pediatrics.aappublications.org by guest on May 14, 2015